Sources, methodology & disclaimer

Methodology

Content reviewed October 2026 against makers' documentation, standards documents and official government sources.
Products are listed neutrally; inclusion is not endorsement. No affiliate links, sponsorships or paid placements.
Where experts disagree, we present both sides with sources.
Features and prices change. Always verify with the official source before purchasing or relying on any information.
Examples and people in scenarios are fictional. No real or usable seed phrase appears anywhere on this site.

Standards

BIP39 · BIP32 · BIP44 · BIP93 (codex32) · BIP174 (PSBT) · BIP380 (descriptors)
SLIP-39 · SeedQR · Seed XOR · codex32
NIST SP 800-90A · NIST SP 800-90B

Independent research & community guides

Legal & tax

UK: Property (Digital Assets etc) Act 2025 · Law Commission · Digital Assets (Scotland) Bill · HMRC Cryptoassets Manual · IHT thresholds
US: IRS digital assets · IRS estate & gift tax · Uniform Law Commission
US (added in the October 2026 US estate update): Instructions for Form 706 · IRS estate tax FAQ · Rev. Proc. 2022-32 (portability) · Form 8971 · Form 56 · Publication 559 · Instructions for Form 1041 · IRS FAQ: inherited property basis · IRM 25.18.1 community property · Publication 555 · Tax Foundation: state estate & inheritance taxes 2026 · ULC legislative report by state · Delaware Code title 12 ch. 50 · UPC §2-502 · FDIC: Uniform Prudent Investor Act excerpts · Daily Dot: Mellon estate
EU & others: MiCA · Succession Regulation · CRA · ATO

Added in the October 2026 review

Randomness & entropy (added 24 October 2026)

UK estate planning depth and UK SIM swap advice (added 24 October 2026)

Intestacy and probate (England and Wales): GOV.UK: intestacy result, deaths from 26 July 2023 (£322,000) · GOV.UK: intestacy tool · GOV.UK: applying for probate · GOV.UK: probate fees (£526) · GOV.UK: dealing with the estate
Incapacity across the UK: GOV.UK: deputies · GOV.UK: deputy fees · GOV.UK: Court of Protection forms · gov.scot: guardianship and intervention orders · OPG Scotland: how to apply · OPG Scotland: intervention orders · DoJ NI: becoming a controller · nidirect: enduring power of attorney
Inheritance Tax on crypto: HMRC CRYPTO25000 · HMRC: IHT thresholds · GOV.UK: passing on a home · HMRC IHTM12211: Scottish prior rights · Scottish Parliament: inheritance law in Scotland (2025) · GOV.UK: IHT400 · GOV.UK: paying IHT
Exchange death claims, UK view (checked 24 October 2026): Coinbase: claim a decedent's account · Kraken: deceased client account claims · Revolut: what happens if the account holder passes away
Digital assets law and SIM swaps: Law Commission: digital assets · Property (Digital Assets etc) Act 2025 · Metropolitan Police: SIM swap fraud

Threats, standards and life-event scenarios (added 24 October 2026)

Data leaks and social engineering: Ledger CEO: data leak update · Ledger: e-commerce and marketing breach FAQ · Coinbase: SEC filing, May 2025 · Reuters: Coinbase data theft
Look-alike sites, extensions and clippers: FBI/IC3: search-ad impersonation (21 December 2022) · Koi Security: FoxyWallet · BleepingComputer: fake wallet add-ons · Mozilla Add-ons blog: crypto wallet scams · ESET: first clipper on Google Play
Approvals, permits and drainers: MetaMask: what is a token approval? · MetaMask: signature phishing · ERC-2612: permit · Group-IB: Inferno Drainer
SIM swaps: FBI/IC3: SIM swapping (2022) · Federal Register: FCC SIM-swap and port-out rules (8 December 2023) · NCSC: 2-step verification on email
Physical coercion: BBC: Greater Manchester kidnapping sentences · US DOJ: home-invasion crew sentenced · Reuters: kidnappings in France · Reuters: Manhattan case pleas · Lopp: physical attacks list
Standards (fundamentals): BIP49 · BIP84 · BIP86 · BIP48 · BIP380 · BIP39 wordlists · SLIP-10 · SLIP-44
Life events (scenarios): GOV.UK: lasting power of attorney · Royal Mail: redirection · USPS: forwarding mail · FDIC: safe deposit boxes and home safes

US estate planning depth and the US Travel Rule (added 24 October 2026)

Exchange death claims (checked 24 October 2026): Coinbase: claim a decedent's account · Kraken: deceased client account claims · Gemini: adding a beneficiary
Small estates and probate: Judicial Council of California: Probate Code §890 adjusted amounts · California Courts: small estate affidavit · Uniform Law Commission: RUFADAA · IRS Publication 559
Federal estate and fiduciary returns: IRS: what's new, estate and gift tax ($15,000,000 for 2026) · IRS: Instructions for Form 706 · IRS: About Form 706 · IRS: About Form 1041 · 26 U.S.C. §1014 (Cornell LII)
US Travel Rule: eCFR: 31 CFR 1010.410 · FinCEN: FIN-2019-G001 (9 May 2019) · Federal Register: 2020 unhosted-wallet proposal · Federal Register: withdrawal (6 October 2026)

US state-level estate rules (added 25 October 2026)

RUFADAA enactments: Uniform Law Commission: RUFADAA enactment map and bill list · California SB 1458 (2024), Chapter 799 · Delaware Code title 12, chapter 50
Small estates: Judicial Council of California: Probate Code §890 adjusted amounts · California Courts: small estate affidavit · Texas Estates Code chapter 205 · Florida Statutes §735.201 · New York SCPA §1301 · 755 ILCS 5/25-1 · 20 Pa.C.S. §3102 · Pa.R.O.C.P. 5.50 (LII)
Survivorship in community property states: Texas Estates Code chapter 112 · California Civil Code §682.1

Beginner depth: first steps, UK and US protection, and DCENT (added 24 October 2026)

First steps and quick answers: Trezor: if your Trezor or wallet backup goes missing · Trezor: lost wallet backup · Ledger: device lost or stolen · Trezor: is my device safe to use? · NCSC: report a scam email · FTC: recognise and avoid phishing · GOV.UK: what to do when someone dies · USA.gov: death of a loved one
UK protection and reporting: FSCS: cryptoassets · FSCS: eligibility rules · Report Fraud: cryptocurrency · FCA: report a scam · FCA: Travel Rule expectations · NCSC: turn on 2-step verification
US protection and custody: FDIC: financial products that are not insured · SIPC: what SIPC protects · SEC: crypto asset custody basics (12 December 2025) · FBI/IC3: SIM swap schemes (2022)
DCENT X and DCENT S (24 October 2026): DCENT store: DCENT X · DCENT store: DCENT S + R3covery Card · DCENT store: R3covery Card · DCENT: D'CENT is now DCENT · DCENT X introduction · DCENT X set-up · DCENT X: recover with R3covery card · DCENT X: recover with words · DCENT S introduction · DCENT S set-up

Randomness depth: devices, cards, derived secrets and verification (added 24 October 2026)

Devices and dice mixing: Blockstream: how Jade generates your recovery phrase · Jade random.c · Jade wiki: entropy · Keystone: dice roll guide · Keystone BTC-only firmware · Foundation: user added entropy · Foundation: KeyOS 1.3.1 · SeedSigner independent custody guide
Cards, passphrases and derived secrets: Bayer & Diaconis (1992), riffle shuffles · EFF dice-generated passphrases · EFF: new wordlists (2016) · BIP85 specification · SLIP-39 specification
Verification and reproducible builds: reproducible-builds.org: definition · Trezor: reproducible builds · SeedSigner OS: building
New case files and updates: ISE: Ethercombing (2019) · Wired: the blockchain bandit · Breitner & Heninger: Biased Nonce Sense · DOJ: Malone Lam guilty plea (8 September 2026) · IRS-CI: the same announcement · D'CENT store: Biometric Wallet (24 Oct 2026)

UK estate planning (added 24 October 2026)

Physical storage (added 24 October 2026)

Stress tests and design: Lopp: stress test methodology · Lopp: why stress test · Lopp: treatise on seed backup device design (2022) · Lopp: how to back up a seed phrase (2022) · individual reviews: Billfodl, Keystone Tablet Plus, Keystone Tablet Punch, Cryptosteel Capsule, CryptoTag Zeus, Coinplate Grid, Coinplate Alpha, Cypherwheel, Copper Seed Safe, Keyois Capsule, Coldbit Passphrase, Steel Wallet (DIY), Bulletproof Bitcoin (DIY). Disclosure: Lopp co-founded Casa.
Materials: Royal Society of Chemistry periodic table: titanium, copper, aluminium, zinc · AZoM: cartridge brass C26000 · University of Illinois PSAP: lamination vs encapsulation
Fire and safe standards: NIST SP 1102: fire fighter fact sheet (heat flux and temperatures) · Home Office: fire and rescue incident statistics, year ending March 2026 · USFA: residential fire estimates · UL 72 scope · American Security: fire ratings explained · KL Security: UL fire rating · BSI: BS EN 15659 · BSI: BS EN 1047-1 · An Garda Síochána: secure safes and standards
Safe deposit boxes: Barclays: Barclaysafe closed · NatWest: Safe Custody · RBS: Safe Custody · Bank of Scotland: Safe Custody · Metro Bank: safe deposit boxes · The Times (2016): why the safe deposit box is on the way out · FDIC: five things to know about safe deposit boxes · OCC HelpWithMyBank: old safe deposit box contents · NAUPA: safe deposit boxes
Makers and incidents: Trezor: set up Keep Metal · Trezor Keep Metal Multi-share · CNBC (April 2025): self-custody risks after the wildfires · Bitcoin.com News (January 2025): Casa customer loses seed in fire · BBC (2016): Hatton Garden sentencing

Hardware wallets (added 24 October 2026)

Maker documentation: Trezor: TROPIC01 chip · Trezor: where to buy · Trezor: authenticate Safe 5 · Trezor: firmware authenticity check · Trezor: firmware hash check · Trezor: verify Trezor Suite · Ledger: hardware architecture · Ledger: is Ledger open source? · Ledger: BOLOS public sources · Ledger: genuine check · Ledger: authorised resellers · Ledger Bitcoin app · COLDCARD Mk4 hardware · COLDCARD firmware · COLDCARD licence · Coinkite store · BitBox security features · BitBox02 reproducible releases · Jade: why no secure element · Jade: reproducible builds · Foundation KeyOS · KeyOS 1.3.1 · Passport Prime Keylabs audit · Keystone: dice rolls · Keystone: verify firmware · Keystone: firmware 2.4.0 notice · Kudelski: Tangem audit
Security research and advisories: Ledger Donjon: Trezor Safe evaluation · Trezor: Donjon Safe 3 evaluation · Trezor: supply-chain defences · Ledger Donjon: TROPIC01 laser fault injection · Tropic Square advisory · Trezor: TROPIC01 disclosure · Ledger Security Bulletin 023 · Ledger Security Bulletin 005 · Ledger Donjon: Trezor seed extraction (2019) · wallet.fail (35C3) · Ledger: response to wallet.fail · BitBox: Marmorera update · OneKey Anzen: Keystone USB flaw · Dark Skippy disclosure · Dark Skippy FAQ · Blockstream: anti-exfil · BitBox: anti-klepto · WalletScrutiny
Incidents and controversies: Trezor: support-portal incident (2024) · BleepingComputer: Trezor support breach · Wired: forgotten Trezor PIN (2017) · The Verge: Joe Grand recovery · Decrypt: Joe Grand recovery · Ledger: Recover white paper · Recover white paper (GitHub)
Standards: BIP-380 descriptors · BIP-388 wallet policies

Method comparison (added 24 October 2026)

Protections and regulators: FCA: crypto basics · FCA: crypto investment scams · FDIC: crypto fact sheet · FDIC: products not insured · SIPC: what SIPC protects · FINRA: crypto asset risks · FTC: Voyager FDIC claims
Custodial failures and death claims: Celsius Earn ruling (S.D.N.Y.) · TechCrunch: Celsius ruling · Coinbase: claim a decedent's account · Kraken: deceased client claims
Providers and methods: Casa pricing · Casa: if Casa shuts down · Unchained: recovery with Caravan · Unchained: configuration file · Unchained: multisig, SSS and MPC compared · Bitkey: how it works · Bitkey: inheritance · Nunchuk 2.0 autonomous inheritance · Zengo: recovery kit · Zengo: guaranteed access · Ledger: what is Ledger Recover · COLDCARD: Seed XOR spec · COLDCARD: Seed XOR warning
Community advice: Antonopoulos: why seed splitting is a bad idea · Casa: 21 tips · Casa: dos and don'ts of key management

Printable templates & checklists (added 24 October 2026)

Letters of instruction and wishes: Fidelity: letter of instruction · The Gazette: a letter of wishes explained · Age UK: making a will (PDF) · Morgan: Cryptoasset Inheritance Planning (2018)
UK and US documents: MoneyHelper: how to make and register a power of attorney · GOV.UK: store a will with HMCTS · Investor.gov / CFPB: planning for diminished capacity · CFPB: managing someone else's money
Testing and maintenance: Trezor: check backup (Safe 3) · Trezor: check backup (Safe 7) · Trezor: troubleshooting backups · Ledger: Recovery Check · Glacier Protocol: maintenance · Glacier Protocol: generating entropy · Glacier Protocol document (PDF)
Multisig records: Multisig Setup: back up the wallet configuration · BIP-129: Bitcoin Secure Multisig Setup
Statistics and printing: NIST: critical values of the chi-square distribution · FTC: digital copier data security · ISO 216: paper sizes

World estate planning (added 24 October 2026)

EU and international: EU Succession Regulation 650/2012 · European Commission: DAC8 · OECD: jurisdictions committed to CARF (14 September 2026)
Ireland: Revenue: Tax and Duty Manual 02-01-03, crypto-assets (reviewed January 2026) · Revenue: what is the valuation date? · Revenue: important dates for CAT
Germany: §19 ErbStG (rates) · §23 EStG (private disposals) · BMF: crypto letter of 6 March 2025 · BGH press release, III ZR 183/17 (2018)
France: Service Public: droits de succession (checked 9 February 2026) · BOFiP: valuation of transmitted assets · Congrès des notaires 2021: valuing digital assets
Spain: AEAT: form 721 FAQ · AEAT: form 721 filing period
Netherlands: Belastingdienst: inheritance tax rates 2026 · Belastingdienst: exemptions 2026 · Belastingdienst: crypto in Box 3
Switzerland: ESTV: taxation of cryptocurrencies
Canada: CRA: capital gains for someone who died · CRA: crypto-asset guidance · Ontario: Estate Administration Tax
Australia: ATO: how CGT applies to inherited assets (updated 22 June 2026) · ATO: crypto asset investments
New Zealand: IRD: cryptoassets · IRD: buying and selling cryptoassets · IRD: inheriting property
Singapore and Hong Kong: IRAS: estate duty · IRAS: gains from sale of property, shares and financial instruments · Hong Kong IRD: estate duty
Japan: NTA: crypto tax FAQ (December 2025) · NTA: crypto FAQ (PDF) · NTA (English): inheritance tax
UAE: UAE Government portal: personal status for non-Muslims
South Africa: SARS: estate duty · SARS: CGT annual exclusion · SARS: FAQs on deceased estates (Issue 4) · SARS: crypto assets and tax
India: Income Tax Department: section 115BBH (1961 Act)
Case: OSC: QuadrigaCX report announcement · OSC staff review of QuadrigaCX

Site-wide fact-check (added 24 October 2026)

Reporting fraud: Report Fraud: service goes live (4 December 2025) · GOV.UK: Report Fraud replaces Action Fraud · FTC: ReportFraud.ftc.gov
UK regulation: FCA: cryptoasset regulated activities (new regime from 25 October 2027)
Providers: Casa pricing · Casa: Premium membership · Bitkey: inheritance · Zengo: Recovery Kit · Argent: Vault migration (August 2025) · Ready: recovering a wallet
Standards: Trezor: upgrading to Multi-share Backup · Trezor: firmware 2.7.2 (June 2024)

Directory & case files (added 24 October 2026)

Case files — coercion: BBC: Greater Manchester kidnap gang jailed · Manchester Evening News · Reuters: Manhattan defendants plead not guilty · ABC News · LA Magazine: dismissal refused (January 2026)
Case files — supply chain and phishing: Trust Wallet: v2.68 incident update · SecurityWeek: Shai-Hulud link · Ledger: physical mail phishing · BleepingComputer: scam letters · The Block: Ledger confirms scam letters · Cointelegraph: second-hand Ledger · Ledger: pre-seeded device scams · Ledger: second-hand device warning · Group-IB: Inferno Drainer
Case files — loss and computers: Irish Times: codes lost (2020) · Irish Times: CAB unable to access (2024) · The Block: further 500 BTC recovered (2026) · BBC: should crypto owners make a will? · WIRED: RoboForm password · Grand Idea Studio: RoboForm notes · Ars Technica: Luke Dashjr · Magnet Forensics: UNC1142
Case files — courts and the law: Tulip v Van der Laan [2023] EWCA Civ 83 (PDF) · Judiciary: Tulip judgment page · LexisNexis: Tulip discontinued · Bitcoin Legal Defense Fund: Tulip discontinued · Property (Digital Assets etc) Act 2025 · Law Commission: Royal Assent · California Probate Code §880
Directory — wallets and tools: Electrum: cold storage · Glacier Protocol · Glacier repository · Bitcoin Safe · Exodus: 12-word secret key · Phantom: supported hardware wallets · Cake Wallet: Monero guide · The Block: Base app renamed Coinbase Wallet · Squads docs · Hermit (archived) · Banana Split · SeedHammer: metal plates
Directory — custodians and professional resources: Gemini Custody · Kraken Custody · BNY digital assets · Paxos · Archax · OCC: Anchorage charter (2021) · OCC: Anchorage consent order (2022) · OCC: order terminated (2025) · Fireblocks: BitForge · NAELA · ABA FindLegalHelp.org

Core guides: fundamentals, standards, scenarios & decision guide (added 24 October 2026)

Fundamentals — standards and specifications: BIP39 · BIP32 · BIP44 · BIP85 · SLIP-132 · BIP39 test vectors (Trezor python-mnemonic) · Electrum seed version system · Electrum FAQ (gap limit) · LND aezeed · Trezor: what is a passphrase
Standards — formats, compatibility and descriptors: SLIP-39 · BIP-93 codex32 · COLDCARD: Codex32 docs · Coinkite: firmware 5.6.3 / 1.5.3Q · Sparrow 2.4.0 release · Bitcoin Knots: codex32 · Trezor SLIP-39 FAQ · Moneropedia: mnemonic seed · BIP380 · BIP386 · BIP388 · BIP389 · Bitcoin Core: descriptors · Bitcoin Core 23.0 release notes
Scenarios — incidents, recovery and scams: Ledger: change your recovery phrase · BTCRecover · FBI IC3: fake recovery companies (2023) · FBI IC3: fictitious law firms (2024) · Lopp: metal storage reviews
Scenarios — law, borders and tax: Terrorism Act 2000, Schedule 7 · BBC: Rabbani convicted (2017) · Rabbani v DPP [2018] EWHC 1156 (Admin) · CBP: border search of electronic devices · Form E financial statement (GOV.UK) · HMRC CRYPTO22600: location of exchange tokens · HMRC HS278: temporary non-residents (2026) · IRS: US citizens and resident aliens abroad · FinCEN Notice 2020-2 (FBAR and virtual currency)
Decision guide — price check (24 October 2026): Trezor Safe 3 · Trezor Safe 5 · Trezor Safe 7 · Trezor Keep Metal 24-word · Trezor Keep Metal multi-share · Ledger Nano S Plus · Ledger Nano X · Ledger Flex · BitBox shop · BitBox Steelwallet · Blockstream store · Coinkite store · Casa pricing · Sparrow: best practices

Safety, custody & start here (added 24 October 2026)

Safety — official figures and warnings: IC3 2025 Internet Crime Report · FBI: 2025 report press release · IC3: fraudulent investment apps (2022) · IC3: liquidity mining scam (2022) · IC3: guidance for victims (2023) · FBI: crypto investment fraud · FBI Denver: address poisoning · FTC: cryptocurrency and scams · FCA: recovery room scams · FCA: crypto investment scams
Safety — vendor advisories and incidents: Ledger: address poisoning · Trezor: address poisoning · MetaMask: address poisoning · Trezor: is my device safe? · Trezor resellers · BleepingComputer: fake Ledger Live app · RFI: Balland kidnapping · Reuters: Balland kidnapping
Custody — failures and disclosures: Celsius Earn opinion (2023) · DOJ: Bankman-Fried sentenced · Coinbase Form 10-Q, Q1 2022 · SEC SAB 122
Follow-ups — prices and FBAR: Blockstream: Jade Plus · Blockstream: Jade Core · FinCEN: FBAR page

Asset records & estate hub (added 24 October 2026)

Asset records — HMRC: Selling cryptoassets: records you must keep · Cryptoassets Manual · CRYPTO22200 pooling · CRYPTO22400 losing private keys · Information you need to give to crypto providers · Reporting cryptoasset user and transaction data · IEIM8000050 CARF commencement
Asset records — IRS: Digital assets · Virtual currency FAQs · Instructions for Form 8949 · Instructions for Form 1099-DA · Rev. Proc. 2024-28 · Notice 2025-7
Asset records — standards and software: BIP-129 (BSMS) · BIP380 · Bitcoin Core listdescriptors · Trezor: check backup · Sparrow best practices
Estate hub — cases: BBC News: family unable to access bitcoin · OSC QuadrigaCX report

The estate hub's UK and US comparison reuses sources already listed under the UK and US estate guides.

Lost or stolen crypto and estates abroad (added 24 October 2026)

US lost or stolen crypto: Public Law 119-21 (One Big Beautiful Bill Act), ss. 70109–70110 · IRS: casualty loss deduction made permanent · 26 U.S.C. §165 · 26 U.S.C. §67 · CCA 202302011 · CCA 202511015 · Publication 547 (2025) · Taxpayer Advocate Service: digital asset losses
Estate hub: Fortune (2017): Chainalysis lost-bitcoin estimate
Rest of the world: Singapore Courts: probate and administration · Hong Kong Judiciary: Probate Registry · Supreme Court of India: Shakti Yezdani (2023)

Directory additions, digital legacy and new case files (added 24 October 2026)

Hardware wallets: KeepKey store (24 Oct 2026) · KeepKey support status · SecuX V20 · D'CENT Help: recovery words
Software wallets: Ledger: Ledger Live is now Ledger Wallet · Trezor Suite · Phoenix (GitHub) · Muun: why not just a mnemonic? · The Block: zkSNACKs ends coinjoin coordination · Proton Wallet security model · Nunchuk inheritance
Digital legacy and exchanges: Apple: Legacy Contact · Google: Inactive Account Manager · Bitwarden: Emergency Access · Coinbase: claim a decedent's account · Kraken: deceased client claims · GOV.UK: Tell Us Once · GOV.UK: search probate records · NAUPA · California SCO: unclaimed property law
New case files: DOJ: home-invasion crew sentenced (2024) · Indictment, US v. Lam · FBI/IC3 PSA I-062424 · FBI/IC3 PSA I-081325 · Reuters: France kidnappings (May 2025) · Parity post-mortem (2017) · EIP-999 · CPS: Qian sentenced (2025) · Sentencing remarks: R v Qian and Ling

Passphrases, SLIP-39 support and multisig recovery (added 25 October 2026)

Standards: BIP39 (NFKD, PBKDF2, plausible deniability) · SLIP-39 (passphrase, identifier, rationale) · BIP383 multi() and sortedmulti() · BIP48 multisig derivation
Passphrase handling: Trezor: what is a passphrase · Trezor: using a passphrase wallet · Trezor: passphrase troubleshooting · Ledger: how to set up a passphrase · Ledger: Nano S firmware 1.3 guide · COLDCARD: BIP-39 passphrase
SLIP-39 support: Trezor: upgrading to Multi-share Backup · Keystone: import or create Shamir backup · Keystone 3 firmware changelog · Trezor forum: SLIP-39 compatibility issue (2024) · OneKey: SLIP39 creation and recovery · Electrum release notes · Sparrow 2.0.0 release
Multisig recovery: Unchained: bitcoin wallet configurations · Bitcoin Stack Exchange: what to back up in a multisig

Disclaimer

Seed Phrase Field Guide provides general educational information only. It is not legal, tax, financial or investment advice and creates no professional relationship. Laws, tax rates and products change. You are responsible for your own decisions; consult a qualified, regulated professional. Product and company names are trademarks of their owners and are used for identification only; Seed Phrase Field Guide is not affiliated with any of them.

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Last reviewed: 23 October 2026 · Educational information only — verify current details with official sources.